Pulses and oilseeds production

In short

Pulses (grain legumes - chickpea, pigeonpea, mungbean, urdbean, lentil, fieldpea, cowpea, horsegram) and oilseeds (groundnut, soybean, rapeseed-mustard, sunflower, sesame, safflower, niger, linseed, castor) are the protein and edible-oil backbone of Indian agriculture, grown largely on rainfed, marginal and residual-moisture lands. India is the world's largest producer and consumer of pulses yet imports 2-3 million tonnes a year, and imports well over half its edible oil - so raising their productivity is a stated national priority (NFSM-Pulses, National Mission on Edible Oils for oil palm and oilseeds). The agronomy is distinctive: biological nitrogen fixation, indeterminate growth habit, sulphur and calcium nutrition, flower-drop sensitivity to moisture stress, and intercropping systems. The topic is heavily examined in B.Sc Agriculture crop-production papers, ICAR JRF/SRF, ARS-NET and IBPS-AFO/NABARD recruitment, and in interviews for seed, agri-input and extension jobs (IFFCO, Coromandel, Bayer, Syngenta, Nuziveedu, state agriculture departments, KVKs).

Explained

Classification, importance and why their yields are low

• Pulses = dry edible seeds of Leguminosae (Fabaceae); 20-25% protein, lysine-rich, complement cereal-based diets. Oilseeds = crops grown primarily for extractable fat (38-50% oil in groundnut/sesame, 40-42% in mustard, 18-20% in soybean).
• Season-wise grouping: *Kharif pulses* - pigeonpea (arhar/tur), mungbean, urdbean, cowpea, mothbean, horsegram; *Rabi pulses* - chickpea (gram), lentil, fieldpea, lathyrus; *Summer/spring* - mungbean, urdbean, cowpea (after rice/potato).
• *Kharif oilseeds* - groundnut, soybean, sesame, castor, niger, sunflower; *Rabi oilseeds* - rapeseed-mustard, safflower, linseed, sunflower, groundnut (summer, in Gujarat/AP/TN).
• Soybean is botanically a legume but statistically an oilseed in Indian reporting - a classic exam trap.
• Nine oilseeds of the national basket: groundnut, soybean, rapeseed-mustard, sunflower, sesame, safflower, niger, linseed, castor (castor and linseed are non-edible/industrial).
• Reasons for low productivity: cultivation on marginal rainfed land, moisture stress at flowering, poor plant stand, low seed replacement rate, indeterminate flowering and flower/pod drop, susceptibility to wilt and pod borer, little irrigation and fertiliser, and cereal-biased policy support historically.
• India's pulse area is roughly 28-30 million ha and production in the 24-28 million tonne range in recent years, with average yield around 800-900 kg/ha - far below the 1,500-2,000 kg/ha achievable; figures move annually, so quote the latest Agricultural Statistics at a Glance / DES advance estimates.
• Leading states (broad picture): pulses - Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka; groundnut - Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh; soybean - Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan; rapeseed-mustard - Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh.

Biological nitrogen fixation and legume nutrition

• Symbiosis: *Rhizobium*/*Bradyrhizobium* bacteria in root nodules reduce atmospheric N₂ to ammonia using the enzyme nitrogenase; the plant supplies carbohydrate, the bacterium supplies N. Effective nodules are pink-red inside (leghaemoglobin); white/green nodules are ineffective.
• Cross-inoculation groups: chickpea - *Mesorhizobium ciceri*; pigeonpea, mungbean, urdbean, cowpea - *Bradyrhizobium* (cowpea group); soybean - *Bradyrhizobium japonicum*; lentil/pea - *Rhizobium leguminosarum*; groundnut - cowpea group. Each needs its own culture; a soybean culture will not nodulate chickpea.
• Fixation ranges (crop and season dependent): pigeonpea 100-200 kg N/ha, groundnut and soybean 50-150, chickpea 60-100, mungbean/urdbean 30-60. Residual N benefit to the following cereal is commonly 20-40 kg N/ha.
• Seed treatment: 20-25 g Rhizobium + PSB (phosphate-solubilising bacteria) per kg seed with 10% jaggery solution as sticker; shade-dry, sow the same day. Treat with fungicide first, biofertiliser last (and never mix the two in the slurry).
• Starter nitrogen: 15-25 kg N/ha only, to carry the crop through the 15-20 day lag before nodules function; high N suppresses nodulation.
• Phosphorus is the key nutrient - 40-60 kg P₂O₅/ha; DAP or SSP. SSP is preferred for pulses and oilseeds because it supplies sulphur (about 11-12% S) and calcium along with P.
• Sulphur is critical for oil synthesis (it builds the S-amino acids cysteine and methionine and oil precursors): 20-40 kg S/ha for mustard, groundnut, soybean, sunflower, sesame. Deficiency shows as pale young leaves (unlike N, which yellows the older leaves first) and cupping in mustard.
• Calcium for groundnut pod development (pegging zone): gypsum 200-500 kg/ha applied at pegging/flowering, broadcast and lightly worked in, in the top 5-8 cm where pods form.
• Micronutrients: boron and molybdenum aid nodulation and pod set (Mo 0.5-1 g/kg seed as sodium molybdate); zinc in rice-based and calcareous soils; iron chlorosis in groundnut and chickpea on calcareous soils - correct with 0.5% FeSO₄ + 0.1% citric acid foliar sprays, repeated.

Package of practices - major pulses

• Chickpea (*Cicer arietinum*): rabi, cool dry weather, 25-30 °C day; deep black or sandy-loam soils, pH 6-8; desi (small, brown, more area) and kabuli (large, cream) types. Seed rate 75-80 kg/ha desi (bold-seeded/kabuli 100-125 kg/ha), spacing 30 × 10 cm, sowing late October-mid November, 5-8 cm deep into conserved moisture. One or two light irrigations (pre-flowering and pod development) - excess water causes rank vegetative growth and wilt. Nipping (clipping apical buds at 30-40 DAS) encourages branching. Chief problems: *Fusarium* wilt (resistant varieties, seed treatment), pod borer *Helicoverpa armigera* (pheromone traps 5/ha, bird perches, NPV, neem, need-based insecticide), collar rot in moist soils.
• Pigeonpea (*Cajanus cajan*): long-duration, deep-rooted, photo-sensitive kharif crop; extra-early/early (120-150 d), medium (150-180 d) and late (>180 d) maturity groups. Needs good drainage - waterlogging for even 2-3 days kills it. Seed rate 12-15 kg/ha (medium/late, 90-180 × 20-30 cm) to 20-25 kg/ha for extra-early at closer spacing. Classic intercrop base: pigeonpea + groundnut, + soybean, + mungbean, + sorghum, + cotton in 1:2 to 2:4 row ratios. Key pests: pod borer complex (*Helicoverpa*, *Maruca*, pod fly), wilt and sterility mosaic.
• Mungbean and urdbean (*Vigna radiata*, *V. mungo*): short duration 60-75 days, fit summer/spring and rice-fallow niches, improve soil N; seed rate 15-20 kg/ha (kharif, 30 × 10 cm) and 20-25 kg/ha in summer at closer spacing. Yellow mosaic virus (whitefly-transmitted) is the main constraint - use resistant varieties and manage whitefly. Two pickings common in mungbean because pods mature unevenly.
• Lentil (*Lens culinaris*): rabi, cold-tolerant, seed rate 30-40 kg/ha small-seeded, 45-60 kg/ha bold; utera/paira (relay) sowing broadcast into standing rice in eastern India. Fieldpea - seed rate 70-100 kg/ha; dwarf types respond to fertiliser and irrigation.
• Harvest pulses at physiological maturity when 80-85% pods turn brown; delay causes shattering (severe in mungbean, urdbean, lentil).

Package of practices - major oilseeds

• Groundnut (*Arachis hypogaea*): needs loose, well-drained sandy-loam for pegging; bunch (Spanish/Valencia, 100-110 d, erect, no dormancy) vs spreading/semi-spreading (Virginia, 120-140 d, fresh-seed dormancy). Seed rate 100-125 kg/ha kernels for bunch at 30 × 10 cm, 80-100 kg/ha for spreading at 45-60 × 10-15 cm. Gypsum at pegging; lime for acid soils. Critical stages: pegging, pod formation, pod filling. Earthing-up aids peg penetration. Key problems: tikka (early/late leaf spot), rust, stem rot, collar rot, aflatoxin (*Aspergillus flavus*) under end-of-season drought and poor drying - dry pods to 7-8% moisture. Harvest when the inner pericarp darkens and 75-80% pods are mature.
• Soybean (*Glycine max*): kharif, 90-110 days, needs 600-1,000 mm well-distributed rain and good drainage; sown with monsoon onset, seed rate 65-80 kg/ha at 45 × 5 cm; broad-bed-and-furrow or ridge-furrow sowing in Malwa vertisols for drainage plus moisture conservation. Fertiliser roughly 20-30 N : 60-80 P₂O₅ : 20-40 K₂O : 20-40 S kg/ha. Problems: girdle beetle, stem fly, Spodoptera, yellow mosaic, charcoal rot; seed viability is low, so fresh high-vigour seed and germination tests (>70%) matter.
• Rapeseed-mustard (*Brassica juncea* and others): rabi, 110-140 days, thrives at 10-25 °C; seed rate only 4-6 kg/ha at 30-45 × 10-15 cm, sown mid-October (delay cuts yield sharply and raises aphid risk); thinning at 15-20 DAS. Fertiliser about 80-120 N : 40-60 P₂O₅ : 40 K₂O : 20-40 S kg/ha for irrigated crop; two irrigations (pre-flowering ~35 DAS, siliqua filling ~70 DAS) - pre-flowering is the single most critical. Mustard aphid (*Lipaphis erysimi*) and white rust/Alternaria blight are the main threats. Toria is a short-duration catch crop before wheat. Low-erucic-acid (canola-quality) and low-glucosinolate types are being promoted.
• Sunflower (*Helianthus annuus*): day-neutral and thermo-insensitive, so it can be sown in kharif, rabi and summer; seed rate 8-10 kg/ha (hybrids 5-6 kg) at 60 × 30 cm or 45 × 30 cm. Cross-pollinated - needs bee activity or hand/rope pollination to avoid unfilled central seeds; two to three beehives per ha recommended. Boron deficiency causes head distortion; sensitive to moisture stress at star/bud, flowering and seed filling. Harvest when the back of the head turns lemon-yellow and lower leaves dry.
• Sesame (*Sesamum indicum*): drought-hardy, 80-95 days, very small seed - seed rate 4-5 kg/ha, mixed with sand for even sowing, spacing 30 × 10-15 cm; intolerant of waterlogging; capsules shatter, so harvest at 75% capsule yellowing and stook-dry.
• Safflower, linseed, niger, castor: safflower - rabi, deep-rooted, spiny, thrives on residual moisture in vertisols, seed rate 10-15 kg/ha; linseed - rabi, dual-purpose (oil and fibre), utera-sown in Chhattisgarh/MP; niger - tribal, poor-soil kharif crop; castor - industrial oil, long-duration, Gujarat dominates, hybrids under irrigation.

Cropping systems, water, weeds and conservation agronomy

• Why legumes fit rotations: fix N, deepen rooting, break pest and disease cycles of cereals, add leaf litter, improve soil structure and P availability (root exudates). Standard rotations: rice-chickpea/lentil, maize-mustard, soybean-wheat, groundnut-wheat, pearlmillet-mustard, cotton-chickpea.
• Intercropping is the pulses/oilseeds speciality, exploiting differences in canopy height, rooting depth and duration: pigeonpea + groundnut (1:3 or 1:5), pigeonpea + soybean (2:4), groundnut + sunflower, castor + groundnut, maize + blackgram, sorghum + pigeonpea (2:1). Assessed by LER (land equivalent ratio); LER > 1 means the intercrop is more land-efficient.
• Catch/green-manure uses: sunnhemp, dhaincha, cowpea for green manuring (incorporate at 45-50 days, before flowering, for the best C:N ratio); mungbean as a short summer crop between wheat and rice.
• Water: most pulses and oilseeds are irrigated only one to three times; irrigate at the critical stages, not by calendar - branching/pre-flowering and pod/siliqua filling. Pulses are highly sensitive to waterlogging and to excess irrigation (which causes flower drop, lodging, and root-rot). Sprinkler irrigation suits groundnut and mustard. Life-saving irrigation in rainfed tracts; in-situ conservation by ridge-furrow, BBF, compartmental bunding, dust mulch and mulching with crop residue.
• Weeds: critical period of crop-weed competition is roughly 20-45 DAS in most pulses and oilseeds; losses 20-50%. Pre-emergence pendimethalin (0.75-1.0 kg a.i./ha) is the common base, followed by one hand weeding or inter-culture at 25-30 DAS; imazethapyr (post-emergence) in soybean and groundnut, quizalofop for grasses. (Herbicide clearance is crop-specific under the Insecticides Act, 1968 and CIB&RC labels - use only label-approved products and doses.)
• Plant growth regulators and canopy management: nipping in chickpea; NAA or 2% DAP foliar spray at flowering reduces flower drop in pigeonpea and pulses; detopping in pigeonpea; mepiquat-type growth retardants in excessively vegetative crops.
• Seed quality and schemes: certified-seed standards and tolerances come under the Seeds Act, 1966 and the Seeds (Control) Order, 1983; the low seed replacement rate in pulses is a known yield-limiting factor, addressed by seed hubs and seed-village programmes. Minimum Support Price is declared by the Cabinet on CACP recommendation for all major pulses and oilseeds; procurement runs through PM-AASHA (price support, price deficiency payment and market-intervention components) with NAFED and NCCF as agencies. Mission-mode programmes: NFSM-Pulses, National Mission on Edible Oils (Oilseeds and Oil Palm), and import-duty management on crude and refined edible oils (duties change frequently - check the latest notification).

Harvesting, yields, storage and quality

• Typical good-management yields (kg/ha): chickpea 1,500-2,500 irrigated; pigeonpea 1,200-2,000; mungbean 800-1,200; lentil 1,000-1,500; groundnut 1,500-2,500 pods (rainfed) to 3,000-4,000 (irrigated summer); soybean 1,200-2,000; mustard 1,200-2,000 rainfed to 2,500-3,000 irrigated; sunflower 1,200-1,800; sesame 500-800.
• Shelling percentage (groundnut) = kernel weight / pod weight × 100, normally 68-75%. Oil content: groundnut kernel 45-50%, sesame 45-50%, mustard 38-42%, sunflower 38-45%, soybean 18-20%, safflower 28-32%, castor 45-50%.
• Harvest index of pulses is low (0.15-0.30) because of indeterminate growth and heavy vegetative mass.
• Drying and storage: store pulses at 8-10% moisture, oilseeds at 7-8%; pulse beetle (bruchid, *Callosobruchus*) is the main storage pest - control by sun-drying, airtight/hermetic storage, neem leaf or edible-oil coating (5 ml/kg), and fumigation only by licensed operators. High-moisture groundnut storage risks aflatoxin, whose limits in food are set under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 and FSSAI contaminants regulations.
• Oil extraction: ghani/expeller (mechanical) pressing leaves 5-8% oil in cake; solvent extraction with hexane reduces residual oil to under 1%; cake is valuable feed (groundnut and soybean meal; mustard cake restricted by glucosinolates; castor cake is toxic, used as manure).
• Quality marketing: AGMARK grading for edible oils, FSSAI standards for refined oils, and the ban on loose/unpacked edible-oil sale; blended edible oils must be labelled.

Key points

• Pulse crops - grain legumes with 20-25% protein; India is the largest producer, consumer and importer.
• Oilseed self-sufficiency gap - India imports well over half its edible oil (palm, soybean, sunflower), hence the edible-oil mission.
• Biological nitrogen fixation - Rhizobium nodules reduce N₂ via nitrogenase; effective nodules are pink inside.
• Starter N only - 15-25 kg N/ha; heavy N fertilisation suppresses nodulation.
• SSP over DAP for legumes/oilseeds - supplies P plus sulphur and calcium.
• Sulphur - the oil-yield nutrient (20-40 kg S/ha); deficiency yellows young leaves first.
• Gypsum at pegging (200-500 kg/ha) - supplies calcium for groundnut pod filling in the pegging zone.
• Seed rates differ hugely - mustard 4-6 kg/ha and sesame 4-5 kg/ha against groundnut 100-125 kg/ha (seed size and spacing).
• Critical irrigation stages - pre-flowering and pod/siliqua filling; pulses suffer more from waterlogging than from mild drought.
• Pigeonpea needs drainage - 2-3 days of standing water can kill the crop.
• Photo-sensitivity - pigeonpea is short-day sensitive; sunflower is day-neutral, so it can be sown in all three seasons.
• Sunflower needs pollinators - 2-3 bee colonies/ha, else hollow central seeds.
• Shattering losses - harvest mungbean, urdbean, lentil and sesame at 75-85% maturity.
• LER > 1 proves an intercrop system is more land-efficient than sole crops.
• Critical weed-competition period - about 20-45 DAS; pendimethalin pre-emergence + one weeding.
• Flower drop is the big yield loss in pulses - reduced by 2% DAP or NAA spray at flowering.
• Storage pests and aflatoxin - bruchid in pulses; *Aspergillus flavus* in poorly dried groundnut (FSSAI limits apply).
• Policy levers - MSP via CACP, procurement under PM-AASHA (NAFED/NCCF), NFSM-Pulses, seed-hub programmes, edible-oil import duties.

Formulas and examples

Example 1 - Seed rate of chickpea from first principles. Desired population 3,33,000 plants/ha (30 × 10 cm), 1000-seed weight 200 g, germination 90%, purity 98%, field loss 10%.

• Seed needed (pure live) = 3,33,000 × 200 g / 10⁶ = 66.6 kg/ha.
• Adjust for germination and purity: 66.6 / (0.90 × 0.98) = 66.6 / 0.882 = 75.5 kg/ha.
• Allow 10% field loss: 75.5 / 0.90 = 83.9 kg/ha - matching the recommended 75-85 kg/ha for desi chickpea.
• Check population: 10,000 m² / (0.30 × 0.10) = 3,33,333 plants/ha. ✔

Example 2 - Fertiliser and sulphur schedule for irrigated mustard. Recommendation 100 N : 50 P₂O₅ : 40 K₂O : 40 S kg/ha. Available: SSP (16% P₂O₅, 11% S), urea (46% N), MOP (60% K₂O), bentonite sulphur (90% S).

• SSP for 50 kg P₂O₅ = 50 × 100 / 16 = 312.5 kg/ha; sulphur it supplies = 312.5 × 0.11 = 34.4 kg S.
• Balance S = 40 − 34.4 = 5.6 kg → bentonite sulphur = 5.6 × 100/90 = 6.2 kg/ha (round to 6-7 kg).
• MOP for 40 kg K₂O = 40 × 100/60 = 66.7 kg/ha.
• Urea for 100 kg N = 100 × 100/46 = 217.4 kg/ha - half basal (109 kg), half at first irrigation (~35 DAS).
• Note: choosing DAP instead of SSP would have left the whole 40 kg S to be bought separately.

Example 3 - Groundnut shelling, oil yield and gypsum. Pod yield 2,400 kg/ha, shelling 70%, kernel oil content 48%, expeller extraction efficiency 85%. Gypsum applied 400 kg/ha.

• Kernel yield = 2,400 × 0.70 = 1,680 kg/ha.
• Oil in kernels = 1,680 × 0.48 = 806.4 kg; recoverable by expeller = 806.4 × 0.85 = 685.4 kg oil/ha.
• Cake = 1,680 − 685.4 = 994.6 kg/ha (with 5-8% residual oil).
• Calcium from gypsum = 400 × 0.23 = 92 kg Ca/ha; sulphur = 400 × 0.186 = 74.4 kg S/ha - so gypsum covers the crop's S need as well.
• Gross value at ₹6,800/quintal pods = 24 quintals × ₹6,800 = ₹1,63,200/ha (MSP changes each season - use the current CACP notification).

Example 4 - Land Equivalent Ratio of pigeonpea + groundnut (1:3). Intercrop yields: pigeonpea 700 kg/ha, groundnut 1,500 kg/ha. Sole yields: pigeonpea 1,400 kg/ha, groundnut 2,400 kg/ha.

• LER = 700/1,400 + 1,500/2,400 = 0.500 + 0.625 = 1.125.
• Interpretation: the intercrop gives the output of 1.125 ha of sole crops from 1 ha - a 12.5% land advantage.

Example 5 - Water use efficiency of chickpea versus wheat. Chickpea: 1,800 kg/ha from 250 mm water use. Wheat: 4,500 kg/ha from 450 mm.

• Chickpea WUE = 1,800/250 = 7.2 kg/ha-mm; wheat WUE = 4,500/450 = 10.0 kg/ha-mm.
• Wheat uses water more productively in kg of grain, but chickpea returns more protein and N per mm and fits residual moisture - the agronomic argument for pulses in water-short tracts.

Where it is used

• Seed industry: breeder/foundation/certified seed production of chickpea, pigeonpea, mustard and soybean - isolation distances, roguing, germination and purity standards (Nuziveedu, Mahyco, Kaveri, NSC, state seed corporations).
• Fertiliser and agri-input companies: sulphur, gypsum, SSP, bentonite-S, micronutrient and biofertiliser portfolios sold specifically on the oilseed-sulphur and legume-Rhizobium story (IFFCO, Coromandel, Rallis, Paradeep Phosphates).
• Crop protection and advisory roles: pod-borer and aphid IPM programmes, label-compliant herbicide recommendations, agronomy advisories for Bayer, Syngenta, UPL, FMC and agri-tech platforms.
• Oil milling and processing: expellers, solvent-extraction plants and refineries in Gujarat, MP, Rajasthan; cake and de-oiled-cake trade for the feed industry.
• Extension and development: KVKs, ATMA, NFSM-Pulses and edible-oil mission field demonstrations, seed hubs, cluster frontline demonstrations; agriculture officer and agricultural field officer roles in banks assessing crop loans, scale of finance and crop insurance under PMFBY.
• Procurement and markets: NAFED/NCCF MSP procurement, APMC/e-NAM trading, FPO aggregation of tur, chana and mustard.

Interview questions

• Q: Why do pulses need only a small starter dose of nitrogen? A: Nodules begin fixing N only 15-20 days after sowing, so 15-25 kg N/ha carries the seedling through that lag; more nitrogen suppresses nodulation and nitrogenase activity.
• Q: Why is single superphosphate preferred over DAP for oilseeds? A: SSP supplies about 16% P₂O₅ plus roughly 11% sulphur and calcium, and sulphur directly drives oil synthesis, whereas DAP carries no sulphur.
• Q: Why is gypsum applied to groundnut at pegging rather than at sowing? A: Pods absorb calcium directly through the pod wall in the top few centimetres, so calcium must be present in the pegging zone exactly when pegs enter the soil.
• Q: How do you distinguish nitrogen deficiency from sulphur deficiency in mustard? A: Nitrogen deficiency yellows the older, lower leaves first; sulphur deficiency appears on the young upper leaves, with cupping and delayed, poorly filled siliquae.
• Q: Why can sunflower be grown in all three seasons? A: It is day-neutral (photo-insensitive) and relatively thermo-insensitive, so flowering is not triggered by daylength, unlike short-day pigeonpea.
• Q: What limits pigeonpea yield in heavy black soils? A: Poor drainage - even two to three days of waterlogging kills the crop; it is sown on ridges or broad beds, and wilt and sterility mosaic add to losses.
• Q: What is nipping in chickpea and why is it done? A: Clipping apical buds at 30-40 DAS; it stops excessive vegetative growth, promotes branching and more pod-bearing nodes, and is used mainly in a vigorous, well-watered crop.
• Q: What is LER and what does a value of 1.2 mean? A: Land equivalent ratio is the sum of relative yields of intercrop components against their sole crops; 1.2 means 1 ha of intercrop produces what 1.2 ha of sole crops would.
• Q: Why does India import edible oil despite being a major oilseed producer? A: Low productivity on mostly rainfed land, low oil-content crops (soybean at 18-20%), rising per-capita consumption, and cheaper imported palm and soft oils.
• Q: Which Rhizobium culture would you supply for a chickpea farmer who already has soybean culture? A: A chickpea-specific *Mesorhizobium ciceri* culture - cross-inoculation groups are specific, and soybean *Bradyrhizobium japonicum* will not nodulate chickpea.
• Q: How is aflatoxin in groundnut prevented at farm level? A: Avoid end-of-season drought and mechanical pod damage, harvest at correct maturity, dry pods rapidly to 7-8% moisture, and store dry and aerated - *Aspergillus flavus* grows in damaged, high-moisture pods; FSSAI prescribes limits in food.
• Q: Why is harvest index low in pulses? A: Indeterminate growth keeps the plant flowering and growing vegetatively, heavy flower and pod drop wastes assimilate, so economic yield is a small fraction (0.15-0.30) of total biomass.

Common mistakes

• Treating seed with a fungicide and the Rhizobium culture together in one slurry, or storing treated seed - the fungicide kills the inoculant, which must be applied last and sown the same day.
• Recommending cereal-level nitrogen doses for pulses, which suppresses nodulation and gives lush, lodging, low-yielding crops.
• Ignoring sulphur in oilseed fertiliser schedules, or converting fertiliser without dividing by the nutrient percentage (e.g. treating 50 kg P₂O₅ as 50 kg SSP).
• Quoting one seed rate for all pulses and oilseeds - mustard and sesame need 4-6 kg/ha while groundnut needs over 100 kg/ha.
• Calling soybean a pulse in statistics and policy answers, or forgetting that castor and linseed are non-edible oils.
• Over-irrigating pulses or applying irrigation by calendar instead of at pre-flowering and pod-filling stages, and ignoring drainage for pigeonpea and soybean.
• Delaying harvest of mungbean, lentil or sesame until fully dry, so a large part of the yield shatters in the field.

Related topics

Cereal crop production · Principles of agronomy · Weed management · Irrigation water management · Soil fertility and fertiliser management · Integrated pest management in field crops